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Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学
Definition定义
Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
形态学是语法的一个分支，研究词的内部结构和构词规则。
Morphology is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter is the study of word formation.
形态学可分为两个分支科学：屈折形态学和词汇或派生形态学。前者研究词的屈折变化，后者研究词的构成。
1. Morpheme 语素
The smallest meaningful unit of language语言最小的意义单位。
The meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning.
语素表达的意义有两种：词汇意义和语法意义。
2. Types of morphemes 语素的分类
a) Free morphemes 自由语素
Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes. 自由语素是独立的意义单位，能够独自自由使用，当然也可以和其它语素结合使用。
b) Bound morphemes 黏着语素
Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word. 黏着语素是那些不能单独使用，而必须和其它语素－自由语素或黏着语素－结合在一起以形成一个单词的语素。
3. Types of bound morphemes 黏着语素的分类
Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes 词根和词缀。
A root is often seen as part of word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word. 词根被看作是词的一部分，它有清楚、明确的意思，但不能单独存在，它必须和另一个词根或词缀组合构成单词。
Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational 屈折词缀和派生词缀
Inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case. The English inflectional affixes include:
屈折词缀或屈折语素表明各种不同的语法关系或语法范畴，如：数、时态、形容词和副词的级和格。现在英语中的屈折词缀包括：
-(e)s, indicating plurality of nouns 表示名词复数
-(e)s, indicating third person singular, present tense 表示现在时的第三人称单数 -(e)d, indicating past tense for all three persons 表示过去时 -ing, indicating progressive aspect 表示进行时
-er, indicating comparative degree of adj. and adverbs表示形容词和副词比较级 -est, indicating superlative degree of adj. and adverbs 表示形容词和副词最高级 -„s, indicating the possessive case of nouns 表示名词的所有格
Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. This is a very common way to create new words in English. Such a way of word-formation is called derivation and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem. A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself. 派生词缀加在一个原有的单词上以构成一个新词。这是英语中的一个很常见的构成新词的方式，这样的方式叫派生法，用派生法构成的新词叫派生词。能够加上一个派生词缀的原有语素叫做词干。词干可以是一个黏着词根、自由语素或者本身就是一个派生词。
实例：
Tolerate 词根toler- ＋ 词缀-ate Quickly 自由语素quick ＋ 词缀-ly
Carelessness 自由语素care ＋词缀-less 形成的派生词careless ＋词缀-ness
Affixes are divided into two kinds: prefixes and suffixes 前缀和后缀
Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. Exception are the prefixes “be-” and “en (m)-”.
前缀改变词干的意思，但通常不改变原词的词性。“be-” 和“en (m)-”是例外。
Suffixes are added to the end of the stem, they modify=y the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.
后缀加在词干的末尾，改变原词的意思，并且在多数情况下，改变原词的词性。
4. Morphological rules 形态学规则
Morphological rules are the rules that govern which affix can be added to what types of stem to form a new word.
形态学规则主要指英语中通过派生方式构成新词的构词规则，即将词缀加到词干上去构成新词的规则。学习者必须掌握这些规则，但又要注意不能过分概括这些
规则，以免生造出不存在的单词。
5. Types of compound words 复合词的类型
Noun + noun 名词＋名词 如：handbook, sunshine
Adjective +noun 形容词＋名词 如：highway, sweetheart
Adjective +noun +ed 形容词＋名词＋ed 如：white-haired, green=eyed Verb +noun 动词＋名词 如：pickpocket, driveway Adverb +noun 副词＋名词 如：downtown, upgrade Noun +verb 名词＋动词 如：toothpick, snowfall Verb +adverb 动词＋副词 如：follow-up, kick-off
Noun +adjective 名词＋形容词 如：world-famous, life-long
-ing form +noun -ing形式＋名词 如：dining-room, reading-glasses
Other forms 其它形式 如：go-between, father-in-law, upbringing, have-nots, thank-you note
6. Features of compounds
1) Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between, or as two separate words.
在拼写上，复合词既可以写成一个词，中间加连字符或不加连字符，也可以分开写。如armchair, follow-up, thunder bird
2) Syntactically, the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element. 在语法上，复合词的词性一般取决于复合词中第二个成分的词性。如icy-cold是形容词，head-strong也是形容词，greenhouse是名词。而例外的情况有：follow-up, crackdown, kickoff都是名词而不是副词，而toothpick, snowfall, facelift都是名词而不是动词。
3) Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meaning of its components.
在语意上，复合词的意义具有习语特性，许多复合词的意义都不是其构成成分的意义的总和。如hotdog, greenhouse等。
4) Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.
在语音上，复合词的重音总是在第一个构成成分上，而次重音在第二个构成成分上。
这一点可以帮助我们用来区分两种-ing的形式，一种是作为名词前修饰语的-ing形式，另一种是作为复合词的前一部分。如running dog 重音在running上，表示“走狗”这一-ing形式＋名词的复合词。如重音在dog上，则表示running用来修饰dog，意为“还在跑的狗”。
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2022-07-27
