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1. Pragmatics is the study of language in use.
Pragmatics is concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker (or writer) and interpreted by a listener (or reader).
Pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning Pragmatics is the study of contextual meaning
Pragmatics is the study of the expression of relative distance.
Pragmatics is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms and the users of those forms.
2. Syntax is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms, how they are arranged in sequence, and which
sequences are well-formed.
3. Semantics is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms and entities in the world; that is, how words
literally connect to things.
4. Deixis 指示语 is a technical term (from Greek) for one of the most basic things we do with utterances. It means
‘pointing’ via language. Any linguistic form used to accomplish this ‘pointing’ is called a deictic expression. Deictic expressions are also sometimes called indexicals. They are among the first forms to be spoken by very young children and can be used to indicate people via person deixis (such as, ‘me’, ‘you’), or location via spatial deixis (such as ‘here’, ‘there’), or time via temporal deixis (such as ‘now’, ‘then’). 5. Proximal terms近指 are typically interpreted in terms of the speaker’s location, or the deictic center指示中心. ‘this’,
‘there’, ‘now’, ‘then’ near speaker 6. Distal terms远指can simply indicate ‘away’ from speaker’, but, in some languages, can be used to distinguish between
‘near addressee’ and ‘away from both speaker and addressee’. 7. Person deixis人称指示语clearly operates on a basic three-part division, exemplified例证 by the pronouns for first
person, second person, and third person./ forms used to point to people, “me””you” 8. Expressions which indicate addressee higher status are described as honorifics敬语.
9. The discussion of the circumstances which lead to the choice of one of these forms rather than another is sometimes
described as social deixis./forms used to indicate relative social status
10. A distinction between forms used for familiar versus a non-familiar addressee in some languages. This is known as the
T/V distinction. 用复数形态来表示单数敬语，在语言中叫 T-V distinction。此概念由 1960 年的学者 Brown 和 Gilman 提出，他们将第二人称单数分为两种形态：T 形态（T-form）和 V 形态（V-form），前者在非正式场合、尊称呼卑、关系亲密的人之间使用，后者在正式场合、下级称呼上级、称呼陌生人的时候使用 11. exclusive ‘we’ (speaker plus other(s), excluding addressee)；
inclusive ‘we’ (speaker and addressee included). 12. spatial deixis空间指示语- the relative location of people and things is being indicated. Eg, here, there/ forms used to
point to location.
13. ‘Yonder’那边 (more distant from speaker)
‘hither’这边 (to this place)
‘thence’从那里 (from that place)
14. deictic projection指示投射 manipulate speaker’s location eg: I am not here now./speakers acting as if they are
somewhere else.
15. psychological distance 心理距离I don’t like that. it is ‘invested’ with meaning in a context by a speaker./speaker’s
marking of how close or distant something is perceived感知 to be.
16. temporal deixis 时间指示 Back in an hour. the coming week./ forms used to point to location in time
17. It is clear that the present tense is the proximal form近端形式 and the past tense is the distal form远端形式.
if-clauses
18. In temporal deixis, the remote or distal form can be used to communicate not only distant from current time, but also
distant from current reality or facts.
19. Discourse deixis/ textual deixis语篇指示语 “the use of expressions within some utterance to refer to some portion
部分 of the discourse that contains that utterance (including the utterance itself)” This is what he did to me. He ripped撕扯 my shirt and hit me on the nose
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20. We might best think of reference as an act in which a speaker, or writer, uses linguistic forms to enable a listener, or
reader, to identify something.
21. Reference, then, is clearly tied to the speaker’s goals (for example, to identify something) and the speaker’s beliefs (i.e.
can the listener be expected to know that particular something?) in the use of language. 22. Those linguistic forms are referring expressions所指词语, linguistic form which enables a listener, or reader, to
identify something. which can be proper nouns专有名词 (for example, Shakespear’, Cathy Revuelto’, ‘Hawaii’), noun phrases 名词短语which are definite (for example, ‘the author’, ‘the singer’, ‘the island’), or indefinite (for example, ‘a man’, ‘a woman’, ‘a beautiful place’), and pronouns代词 (for example, ‘he’, ‘her’, ‘it’ , ‘them’ ). 23. Inference 推断 不在了-死了
24. attributive use归属性用法using an expression to identify someone or something without being committed to the
existence of an actual person or thing. meaning ‘whoever/whatever fits the description. There’s a man waiting for you.不确定的
25. referential use 指称性用法 using an expression to identify someone or something when the person or thing is
assumed to be known. whereby I actually have a person in mind and, instead of using her name or some other description . He wants to marry a woman with lots of money(The word ‘a’ could be replaced by ‘any’) 确定的 26. name & referents对象
There appears to be a pragmatic connection between proper names专有名词 and objects that will be conventionally associated, within a socio-culturally defined community, with those names. Using a proper name referentially to identify any such object invites the listener to make the expected inference (for example, from name of writer to book by writer) and thereby show himself or herself to be a member of the same community as the speaker.
a. Brazil wins World Cup. Brazil-soccer team
b. Japan wins first round of trade talks. Japan-government
27. The linguistic material, or co-text, accompanying the referring expression./ the linguistic environment in which a word is used.
28. The referring expression actually provides a range of reference所指范围, that is, a number of possible referents.
29. Co-text is just a linguistic part of the environment in which a referring expression is used. The physical environment, or context (physical environment in which a word is used), is perhaps more easily recognized as having a powerful impact on how referring expressions are to be interpreted.
30. Reference is not simply a relationship between the meaning of a word or phrase and an object or person in the world. It is a social act, in which the speaker assumes that the word or phrase chosen to identified an object or person will be interpreted as the speaker intended.
31. The definite noun phrases such as, ‘the man’, ‘the cat’, ‘the woman’ and the pronouns such as, ‘it’, ‘he’, ‘her’, ‘they’, are examples of subsequent reference后续参考to already introduced referents, generally known as anaphoric reference照应前项的参考, or anaphora. In technical terms, the second of subsequent随后的 expression is anaphor (the word used to maintain reference to someone or something already mentioned) and the initial expression used to identify someone or something is the antecedent前情.
Pell and slice six potatoes前情. Put them照应前项的参考 in cold salted water.
32. And ‘it’ is used first and is difficult to interpret until the full noun phrase is presented in the next line. This pattern is technically known as cataphora (the use of a word to introduce someone or something that via more fully identified later)回指 下指, and is much less common than anaphora.
I turned the corner and almost stepped on it. There was a large snake in the middle of the path.
33. When the interpretation requires us to identify an entity and no linguistic expression in present, it is called zero anaphora, or ellipsis省略. The use of zero anaphora as means of maintaining reference clearly creates an expectation that the listener will be able to infer who or what the speaker intends to identify. Cook?for three minutes U4书
34. Tautology同意反复 赘言(an apparently meaningless expression in which one word is defined as itself)clearly the speaker intends to communicate more than is said.‘business is business’ or ‘boys will be boys’
35. That something must be more than just what the words mean. It is an additional conveyed meaning, called an implicature含义. The implicature intended in this context.书后 ‘business is business’ or ‘boys will be boys’
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36. cooperative principle make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchanging in which you are engaged. 书后 Quantity
Make your contribution as informative is required (for the current purposes of the exchange). Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
Quality
Try to make your contribution one that is true. Do not say what you believe to be false.
Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
Relation Be relevant
Manner
Be perspicuous清晰明白的.
Avoid obscurity模糊 of expression. Avoid ambiguity.
Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity啰嗦) Be orderly.
37. There are certain kinds of expressions speakers use to mark that they may be in danger of not fully adhering to坚持 the principles. These kinds of expressions are called hedges. (闪烁其辞,模棱两可) 书后 . He couldn’t live without her, I guess.
38. When no special knowledge is required in the context to calculate the additional conveyed meaning, it is called a generalized conversational implicature. 书后 I was sitting in a garden one day. A child looked over the fence.
39. A number of other generalized conversational implicatures are commonly communicated on the basis of scale of values and are consequently known as scalar implicatures.等级含义 I’m studying linguistics and I’ve completed some(not all, most many) of the required courses.
The basis of scalar implicature is that, when any form in a scale is asserted, the negative of all forms higher on the scale is implicated.
40. Most of the time, our conversations take place in very specific contexts in which locally recognized inferences are assumed. Such inferences are required to worked out the conveyed meanings which result from particularized conversational implicatures. 书后 Rick: Hey, coming to the wild party tonight? Tom: My parents are visiting.
46. Politeness concerns a relationship between two participants whom we may call self and other. Speakers also show politeness to third parties, who may or may not be present in the speech situation
47. I. Tact Maxim得体准则 a. Minimize cost to other b. Maximize benefit to other I can lend you my car
II. Generosity Maxim慷慨准则 a. Minimize benefit to self b. Maximize cost to self Could I borrow this electric drill? III. Approbation Maxim 赞许准则a. Minimize dispraise指责 of other b. Maximize praise of other A: Her performance was outstanding! B: Yes, wasn’t it! IV. Modesty Maxim谦逊准则a. Minimize praise of self b. Maximize dispraise of self How stupid of me!
V. Agreement Maxim一致准则 a. Minimize disagreement between self and other b. Maximize agreement between self and other
A: A referendum公民投票 will satisfy everybody. B: Yes, definitely.
VI. Sympathy Maxim同情准则 a. Minimize antipathy反感 between self and other b. Maximize sympathy between self and other. I’m sorry to hear about your cat. A: English is a difficult language to learn. B: True, but the grammar is quite easy.
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2022-05-01
